General Questions About Romanian

What is Romanian and where is it spoken?

Romanian (limba română) is a Romance language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European language family. It is the official language of Romania and Moldova, where it is also known as Moldovan. Approximately 24-26 million people speak Romanian as a native language, making it the largest of the Eastern Romance languages. Romanian is also spoken by significant communities in neighboring countries such as Ukraine, Bulgaria, Serbia, Hungary, and by diaspora communities worldwide, especially in Italy, Spain, Germany, and the United States. It is one of the official languages of the European Union and the Union of Latin Nations.

Is Romanian the same as Aromanian or other Eastern Romance languages?

Romanian is distinct from other Eastern Romance languages such as Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian, and Istro-Romanian. While they share a common historical origin from Vulgar Latin spoken in the Balkans, they have diverged significantly over the centuries. Aromanian is spoken in Greece, Albania, North Macedonia, and Bulgaria; Megleno-Romanian in Greece and North Macedonia; and Istro-Romanian in Croatia. These languages are not mutually intelligible with Romanian, though they retain many similar grammatical structures and vocabulary roots. Romanian itself has four main dialects: Daco-Romanian (the standard), Aromanian, Megleno-Romanian, and Istro-Romanian, but the latter three are often considered separate languages by linguists.

Romanian Dialects and Variants

What are the main dialects of Romanian?

Standard Romanian is based on the Daco-Romanian dialect spoken in the region of Muntenia (Wallachia). Within Daco-Romanian, there are several subdialects: the Wallachian, Moldavian, Banat, and Crișana subdialects. Each has distinct phonetic and lexical features. For example, the Moldavian subdialect is characterized by the pronunciation of unstressed /e/ as /i/ (e.g., pâine pronounced as pâini). The Banat subdialect preserves certain archaic features. Additionally, the Romanian spoken in Moldova (the Republic of Moldova) is essentially the same language, though with some regional vocabulary and a stronger influence from Russian. There is also a distinct variant spoken by the Romanian minority in Ukraine, known as Maramureș dialect, which retains many archaic words.

Phonology and Pronunciation

What are the main pronunciation challenges for learners?

Romanian has a relatively phonetic orthography, meaning words are pronounced as they are written. However, there are several sounds that may be challenging for English speakers:

• ă – a mid-central vowel (schwa) similar to the ‘a’ in ‘about’.
• â/î – a close central unrounded vowel, like the ‘i’ in ‘roses’ but with the tongue higher. Both letters represent the same sound; â is used inside words, î at the beginning and end.
• ș – voiceless postalveolar fricative, like ‘sh’ in ‘ship’.
• ț – voiceless alveolar affricate, like ‘ts’ in ‘cats’.
• ce/ci – pronounced as ‘che’ in ‘cheese’ (voiceless postalveolar affricate) when followed by e or i; otherwise as ‘k’.
• ge/gi – pronounced as ‘je’ in ‘jet’ (voiced postalveolar affricate) when followed by e or i; otherwise as ‘g’ in ‘go’.
• Word stress is typically on the last syllable of the root, but there are exceptions. Stress is not marked in writing except in a few minimal pairs.
• Romanian also features vowel harmony to some extent, especially in verb conjugations.

Grammar and Vocabulary

How is Romanian grammar different from English?

Romanian grammar is more complex than English in several aspects:

• Noun gender: Romanian has three genders: masculine, feminine, and neuter (a mix of masculine and feminine declensions). Neuter nouns behave as masculine in the singular and feminine in the plural.
• Definite articles: Articles are enclitic, meaning they are attached to the end of the noun. For example, om (man) becomes omul (the man). The definite article varies by gender, number, and case.
• Cases: Romanian retains a case system with nominative/accusative, genitive/dative, and vocative. The genitive and dative are identical in form for most nouns and are marked by the article and the ending -i or -e.
• Verb conjugations: Verbs are conjugated for person, number, tense, mood, and voice. There are four conjugation groups based on the infinitive ending: -a, -ea, -e, and -i (or -î). Tenses include present, imperfect, perfect compound, pluperfect, and future. The subjunctive mood is widely used, often introduced by the conjunction să.
• Vocabulary: Romanian vocabulary is approximately 70% Latin-based, with the remainder coming from Slavic, Greek, Turkish, Hungarian, and French influences. Many basic words are of Latin origin (e.g., apă ‘water’, pâine ‘bread’, om ‘man’), but there are also many Slavic loanwords (e.g., iubi ‘to love’, prieten ‘friend’).

How does Romanian form plurals?

Plural formation in Romanian is complex and depends on the gender and the ending of the noun. Common patterns include:

• Masculine nouns ending in a consonant often add -i (e.g., student → studenți).
• Feminine nouns ending in -ă typically change to -e (e.g., casă ‘house’ → case).
• Neuter nouns often have masculine singular and feminine plural forms (e.g., scaun ‘chair’ → scaune).
• Some nouns have irregular plurals, such as om (man) → oameni (men).

Cultural Aspects

How do greetings work in Romanian?

Romanian greetings are similar to other Romance languages. Common greetings include:

• Bună ziua (Good day) – formal, used from late morning to evening.
• Bună dimineața (Good morning) – used until around noon.
• Bună seara (Good evening) – used after sunset.
• Salut (Hi) – informal, used among friends.
• La revedere (Goodbye) – formal.
• Pa (Bye) – informal.

Romanians often use handshakes when meeting, and close friends may kiss on both cheeks. When entering a shop or a group, it is polite to greet everyone with bună ziua. The phrase Noroc (Cheers) is used when toasting, and Mulțumesc (Thank you) is essential. Politeness is highly valued; using the formal dumneavoastră (you, formal) is expected with strangers and elders.

What are some unique cultural expressions?

Romanian has many idiomatic expressions that reflect its cultural heritage:

• A da cu mâna (literally ‘to give with the hand’) means to bribe.
• A umbla cu fofârlica (‘to go around with the fofârlica’) means to beat around the bush.
• A face pe dracu-n patru (‘to make the devil in four’) means to go to great lengths.
• Mai bine mai târziu decât niciodată (Better late than never) is a common proverb.

Romanian also has a rich tradition of folklore, including the famous Miorița ballad and the myth of Dracula (based on Vlad Țepeș). The language has a strong oral tradition, with fairy tales often beginning with A fost odată ca niciodată (Once upon a time, as never before).